Wednesday 24 November 2021
Wednesday 17 November 2021
Monday 15 November 2021
Possible Christmas exam essays
1. Account for developments in US Foreign policy 1945-1973.
2. During the period 1945-1989, what was the importance for US foreign policy of one or more of the following: Berlin; Korea; Cuba? (100)
3. What part did one or more of the following play in US foreign policy: Korea; Cuba; SALT and Star Wars?
4. Who was the greater president, Truman or Johnson? Argue your case, referring to both in your answer. (100)
5. What were the strengths and weaknesses of Lyndon Johnson as a political leader? (100)
6. How well did President Harry Truman or President Lyndon Johnson handle the challenges he faced? (100)
7. Which president was more successful in his handling of US foreign policy, Harry Truman or Lyndon Johnson? Argue your case, referring to both. (100)
8. What were the successes and failures of the presidency of Lyndon Johnson?
9. During the period 1945-1989, what was the impact on US society of McCarthyism and/or the anti-war movement? (100)
10. Why did the US lose the Vietnam War and/or what was the significance of the Moon landing?
11. Why did the Montgomery bus boycott (1956) take place, how was it carried out, and to what extent was it successful? (100)
12. Why did race relations remain a major issue in the US, 1945-1989? (100)
13. What was the significance of one or more of the following in US history: Hollywood, 1945- 1968; the Montgomery bus boycott; religion in modern American culture?
14. What were the main developments in race relations in the US, 1945-1968? (100)
15. In what ways did the Montgomery bus boycott, 1956, advance the cause of the civil rights movement?
16. What was the contribution of Martin Luther King to the Montgomery Bus Boycott and to the other aspects of US life?
17. What was the contribution of Martin Luther King to US affairs?
18. How significant was the role of Martin Luther King in the civil rights movement?
19. What were the strengths and weaknesses of the US economy, 1945-1989?
20. What were the significant developments in the US economy, 1945-1989? (100)
21. To what extent did the US economy experience both success and decline during the period 1945-1989? (100)
22. Why did the United States experience an economic boom, 1945-1968, and what was its impact on society?
Friday 12 November 2021
Monday 8 November 2021
recent essays after vietnam
Do this essay:
1. Which president was more successful in his handling of US foreign policy, Harry Truman or Lyndon Johnson? Argue your case, referring to both.
2. Who was the greater president, Truman or Johnson? Argue your case, referring to both in your answer. (100)(plan this essay and write the domestic paragraphs) Its the same essay as above but you have to reduce the foreign to accommodate 3-4 domestic policies paragraphs (check this in the book but I'd write on on social, one on economic and one on race relations).
3. What were the strengths and weaknesses of Lyndon Johnson as a political leader? (100)
4. What were the successes and failures of the presidency of Lyndon Johnson?
Plan both of these essays, they should be similar but they will differ in places.
Friday 15 October 2021
Monday 27 September 2021
Friday 24 September 2021
Berlin blockade/Korean War/Cuban Missile Crisis videos
Berlin Blockade video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nwjFSQCrShM
Korean war videos
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxaegqvl4aE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tj7jXlr_M9w
Cuban Missile Crisis videos
Wednesday 19 May 2021
Dictatorship and democracy Exam Questions
2020
1. Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war period, Britain or Germany? Argue your case, referring to both. (100)
2. What were the main characteristics of Stalin’s rule in Russia? (100)
3. During the period 1920-1945, how did anti-Semitism and the Holocaust affect Europe? (100)
4. From your study of World War II, what did you learn about two of the following:
wartime alliances; the Home Front; Vichy France?
2019
1. During the inter‐war years, what were the characteristics of fascist regimes in Europe?
2. During the period 1920‐1939, what social and economic problems faced Britain and how effectively were they tackled? (100)
3. What did you learn about Stalin’s leadership from his handling of one or more of the
following: the Soviet economy; the show trials; wartime alliances, 1939‐1945? (100)
4. How did developments in technology affect warfare during World War II?
2018
1. How did Hitler and the Nazi party secure absolute control over Germany in the period 1920‐1938?
2. What problems faced France in the years 1920‐1945, and to what extent were these problems overcome?
3. How effective a leader was Winston Churchill or Josef Stalin during World War II?(100)
4. What was the contribution to cinema of one or more of the following: Charlie Chaplin; Leni Riefenstahl; Bing Crosby?
2017
Document question
2016
Document question
2015
1. What were the social and economic problems facing Germany, 1920-1939, and how were they dealt with?
2. How did Mussolini and/or Stalin use propaganda and terror to remain in power?
3.To what extent did Hitler’s foreign policy, 1933-1939, contribute to the outbreak of World War II?
4. What were the economic and social problems of Britain during the inter-war years and/or what was the impact of World War II on its civilian population?
2014
1. How did the Jarrow March (1936) illustrate the social and economic problems facing Britain during the inter-war period?
2. How did church-state relations develop under Mussolini and Hitler?
3. What were the fortunes of France during the period 1920-1945?
4. What challenges faced the Soviet Union in peace and war, 1924-1945?
2013
1. What were the characteristics of fascist regimes in Europe in the inter-war period?
2. How did Stalin transform the Soviet economy and/or use show trials to consolidate his power?
3. What were the challenges facing Britain in peace and war, 1920-1945?
4. What did you learn about radio and cinema, 1920-1945, from your study of one or more of the following: Charlie Chaplin; Leni Riefenstahl; Bing Crosby?
2012
1. What were the main challenges facing France, 1920-1945?
2. What were the main characteristics of Stalin’s rule in Russia?
3. To what extent was Hitler’s foreign policy, 1933-1939, responsible for the outbreak of World War II?
4. How did anti-Semitism and the Holocaust affect Europe, 1920-1945?
2011
1. To what extent did Lenin and/or Stalin bring about social and economic change?
2. How effective were the internal and external policies of Benito Mussolini?
3. What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933-1939?
4. What did one or more of the following achieve in Britain during the period 1920-1945: J.M. Keynes; those who took part in the Jarrow March, October 1936; Winston Churchill?
2010
1. How successfully did German governments deal with the social and economic problems of the period 1920-1939?
2. How effective were the internaland external policies of Josef Stalin?
3. What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?
4. What was the impact of Anglo-American popular culture on Europe, 1920-1945?
2009
1. Why was France unstable during the period, 1920-1940?
2. How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?
3. What were the main social and economic challenges facing Britain, 1920-1945?
4. What did you learn about World War II from your study of one or more of the following: wartime alliances; collaboration/resistance; technology of warfare?
2008
1. What did Lenin and Stalin contribute to communism in Russia?
2. Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war years, Britain or Germany? Argue your case, referring to both countries.
3.What contribution did Joseph Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?
4. What was the impact of World War II on the civilian population of Britain and/or France?
2007
1. What problems did the Third Republic of France encounter between 1920 and 1940?
2. What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany between 1933 and 1939?
3. What were the causes and the consequences of the Jarrow March, October, 1936?
4. How significant was the role played by the Soviet Union in World War II?
2006
1. During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of fascist regimes?
2. To what extent did Stalin transform the society and economy of the Soviet Union?
3. How successfully did Britain deal with the social and economic problems of the inter-war period?
4. What developments took place in the technology of warfare during the period, 1920-1945?
Sov & Partition Essays completed
all essays done to date:
1.During the period 1922‐1945, how effective were the governments of both Cosgrave and de Valera in dealing with threats to the security of the state?
2.How well did Irish governments cope with the social and economic problems they faced, 1923-1945?
3.How did Anglo-Irish relations develop under Éamon de Valera, 1932-1945?
4.How did Anglo‐Irish relations develop during the period 1923‐1949?
And a detailed plan for: Who handled Anglo-Irish relations better, W. T. Cosgrave or Éamon de Valera? Argue your case, referring to both.
And a plan for: During the period 1922‐1939, who achieved more in Anglo‐Irish relations, Cosgrave or de Valera?Argue your case,referring to both.
5.What was the significance of the Eucharistic Congress, 1932?
6.During the period 1922‐1949, how did the 1932 Eucharistic Congress and/or the state’s language and education policies contribute to Irish identity?
7.How did the Irish government contribute to the consolidation of democracy, 1922-1932?
8.Between 1922 and 1932, what steps did the Cosgrave governments take to establish the Irish Free State on firm foundations?
9.Why were both the negotiations and the terms of the Anglo‐Irish Treaty, 1921,controversial?
10.What were the fortunes of the Sinn Féin movement during the period 1912‐1923?
11. During the period 1912‐1920, which factors contributed most to the partition of Ireland?
12. During the period 1932-1945, which did Éamon de Valera manage better, the economy or Anglo-Irish relations? Argue your case, referring to both.
13. What were the strengths and weaknesses of Éamon de Valera as a political leader? (100)
14. What was the impact of World War II on Ireland, North and South?
Updated Sov & Partition questions
Updated Sov & Partition questions
Ireland: Topic 3 The pursuit of sovereignty and the impact of partition, 1912-1949
Answer one of the following questions:
2020
1. During the period 1912-1921, what attempts were made to obtain self-government for Ireland, and to what extent were they successful? (100)
2. During the period 1923-1945, how effectively did Irish governments tackle the social and economic problems they faced? (100)
3. What were the successes and failures of Éamon de Valera as a political leader? (100)
4. What attempts were made to promote cultural identity in Ireland, North and South? Refer to one or more of the following: language; religion; education.
2019
1. What was the military and political significance of one or more of the following:
the 1916 Rising; the War of Independence; the Civil War? (100)
2. What were the main events of the Eucharistic Congress, 1932, and what was its significance for church and state? (100)
3. What was the impact on Northern Ireland of the world economic crisis of the inter‐war period and/or World War II? (100)
4. How did Anglo‐Irish relations develop during the period 1923‐1949?
2018
1. How did the Sinn Féin movement develop during the period 1912‐1923? (100)
2. Why were both the negotiations and the terms of the Anglo‐Irish Treaty, 1921,controversial? (100)
3. During the period 1922‐1945, how effective were the governments of both Cosgrave and de Valera in dealing with threats to the security of the state? (100)
4. During the period 1922‐1949, how successful were attempts to make independent Ireland a Gaelic and Catholic society?
2017
1. During the period 1912‐1920, which factors contributed most to the partition of Ireland? (100)
2. During the period 1922‐1939, who achieved more in Anglo‐Irish relations, Cosgrave or de Valera?Argue your case,referring to both. (100)
3. During the period 1922‐1949, how did the 1932 Eucharistic Congress and/or the state’s language and education policies contribute to Irish identity? (100)
4. What was the impact of World War II on Ireland, North and South?
2016
1. What were the main events in Dublin during the 1916 Rising, and was Ireland, in Yeats’phrase, ‘changed utterly’ as a result? (100)
2. Why did the conduct and outcome of the Treaty negotiations, October-December, 1921, prove contentious? (100)
3. During the period 1912-1940, what were the strengths and weaknesses of James Craig
as a political leader? (100)4. How well did Irish governments cope with the social and economic problems they faced, 1923-1945? (100)
2013
1. What were the fortunes of the Sinn Féin movement during the period 1912-1922? (100)
2. During the period 1922-1939, how successful were Irish governments in responding to the economic challenges they faced? (100)
3. How did Anglo-Irish relations develop under Éamon de Valera, 1932-1945? 4. What was the impact of World War II on Ireland, North and South? (100)
2012
1. How did the threat and use of physical force affect Ireland during the period 1912-1923? (100)
2. How did the government of Northern Ireland deal with economic problems and/or threats to security, 1920-1945? (100)
3. What was the significance of the Eucharistic Congress, 1932? (100)
4. How did Anglo-Irish relations develop during the period 1923-1949? (100)
2011
1. What did one or more of the following contribute to Irish affairs: Patrick Pearse; Arthur Griffith; Countess Markievicz?
2. How did the Irish government contribute to the consolidation of democracy, 1922-1932?
3. What were the strengths and weaknesses of Éamon de Valera as a political leader? (100)
4. What was the impact on Northern Ireland of international developments during the period 1932-1945?
2010
1. During the period 1912-1920, what factors contributed to the partition of Ireland?
2. Who handled Anglo-Irish relations better, W. T. Cosgrave or Éamon de Valera? Argue your case, referring to both.
3. To what extent did the 1932 Eucharistic Congress and/or the language and education policies of Irish governments promote Irish cultural identity?
4. How did the Unionist Party in power respond to the challenges posed by the existence of a substantial nationalist minority within Northern Ireland?
2009
1. Why were the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations controversial?
2. What were the main social and economic challenges facing Northern Ireland, 1920-1945?
3. During the period 1932-1945, which did Éamon de Valera manage better, the economy or Anglo-Irish relations? Argue your case, referring to both.
4. What attempts were made to promote cultural identity, North and South, during the period, 1912-1945?
2008
1. To what extent was the Anglo-Irish Treaty, 1921, responsible for the Irish Civil War?
2. What steps did Irish governments take to consolidate democracy, 1923-1945?
3. What was the significance of the Eucharistic Congress, 1932, for the Irish Free State?
4. How well did the Unionist Party manage the affairs of Northern Ireland, 1920-1939?
2007
1. What were the aims and achievements of Patrick Pearse?
2. How did Anglo-Irish relations develop during the period 1923 – 1949?
3. How was cultural identity promoted in Ireland, North and South, between 1920 and 1949?
4. Following the experience of war, to what extent was the Belfast of 1945 different from that of 1939?
2006
1. From 1912 onwards, what factors contributed to the partition of Ireland, 1920?
2. Between 1922 and 1932, what steps did the Cosgrave governments take to establish the Irish Free State on firm foundations?
3. How well did Ireland, North and/or South, deal with the social and economic problems presented by World War II?
4. To what extent were language, religion and education used to promote Irish cultural identity during the period, 1920 – 1949?
Friday 14 May 2021
efforts to resolve the troubles sample essay
https://www.dropbox.com/s/8b4od1reovx4gen/What%20moves%20were%20made%20towards%20finding%20a%20peaceful%20resolution%20to%20the%20troubles.docx?dl=0
https://www.dropbox.com/s/zqbyi085ktg3p7r/what-was-the-important-of-sunningdale-anglo-irish-agreement-and-downing-st-declaration.doc?dl=0
https://www.toothillschool.co.uk/data/files/dept/hist/y10coursework/q3booklet.pdf
Friday 7 May 2021
Significance of Sunningdale plan
What was
the significance of the Sunningdale Agreement 1973
Intro:
After fall of Stormont and direct Rule British government faced 2 challenges,
end violence and restore Stormont government. SUNNINGDALE AGREEMENT was key to
this and although it failed its elements of powersharing, irish dimension and
consent were central to all future efforts to restore the NI assembly.
P1.
Whitelaw, restore law and order. IRA bloody Friday. Operation Motorman end no go
areas of nationalists and loyalists. Irish and British govs onboard.
P2. Round
table talks. SDLP separate talks with UK and Irish govs, irish dimension recognized.
Border poll to reassure unionists.
P3. Whitelaws
proposals. Details. PR, assembly, power sharing. Council of Ireland.
P4.
Reactions to proposals and election results June 1973, unionist divisions.
P5. significant
agreement was to be made in November 1973 when details: Faulkner Unionists, the Alliance party and the
SDLP agreed to form a power -sharing executive. 6 unionists, 4 SDLP and 1
alliance member made up the new executive with Brian Faulkner as the leader and
Gerry Fitt as his deputy. Talks began at Sunningdale in England with the
British PM Edward Heath and Taoiseach Liam Cosgrave in attendence, an historic
first. On 9th December the Sunningdale Agreement was signed. Its significance now
unity could now only be achieved by consent. The Irish Government fully
accepted that there could be no change in the status of NI until a majority of
people of NI desired a change
P6 Council
of Ireland, contributed to failure, significant, could learn from this. Conor cruise
o’Brien. Faulkner Necessary nonsense.
P7 1st
January 1974 the new power-sharing gov began to function. UUC vote against it
by 80 votes, Faulkner resigns from party but remains on as head of assembly. general
election on 28 February 1974 UUUC win 11 of 12 westminister seats, “Dublin just
a Sunningdale away” mistake to go ahead without majority of unionists.
P8: 1974
election Heath’s Conservative Gov lost power and was replaced by the
P9 Strike, Ulster Workers Council was formed. Strike began
on the 14
P10 Harold Wilson’s Gov failed to take decisive action.
Wilson’s ‘spongers’ speech. Brian Faulkner and his ministers resigned. This
ended the power-sharing agreement and was replaced by Direct rule from London.
Nationalists were outraged at the decision while Loyalists rejoiced.
Nationalists were shocked at the failure of the British Gov to confront the
strikers and looked on with disbelief at the weak response of Merlyn Rees.
Conclusion: Although the Sunningdale Agreement ultimately
ended in failure it was a significant
Thursday 18 March 2021
Northern Ireland Civil Rights
Sample essays
Notes
https://www.dropbox.com/s/uzrya9hzrtp5z2q/NICRA%20Sample%20Essay.pdf?dl=0
Past Exam Questions
2017 + 2008
Why did the Civil Rights movement emerge in Northern Ireland and was it successful?
Wednesday 10 March 2021
Terence O'Neill
Past questions:
2017 What was the contribution of Terence O’Neill and/or Ian Paisley to the affairs of Northern Ireland?
2015 What was the contribution of Terence O’Neill and/or Ian Paisley to the affairs of Northern Ireland in the period up to 1993?
2012 How effective was the contribution of Terence O’Neill to the affairs of Northern Ireland?
2009 Who was the more effective leader of Northern Ireland, Brookeborough or O’Neill? Argue your case, referring to both.
2006 What was the contribution of Terence O’Neill to the affairs of Northern Ireland during the period, 1949 – 1969?
2016 During the period 1949-1969, how successful was the government of Northern Ireland in responding to problems posed by the economy and/or community relations? (100)
2015. Would you agree that there was considerable social and economic change in Northern Ireland, 1949-1969, but that nothing changed politically?
2008 How successful was the government of Northern Ireland in responding to social and economic problems, 1949-1969?
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1aAbpT4vSFTdFROzdr0Zobbz7mk-gg4NQ/view?usp=sharing
Tuesday 9 February 2021
NI: Social and economic essay 1945-1969
See video lessons on teams.
What were the main Social and Economic changes in Northern Ireland 1943-1969?
Essay plan:
Intro: points to make: The period of 1943-1969 in NI was a time of great social and economic unrest. The concept of economic planning was also introduced in this period to help combat the decline of jobs in traditional industries such as linen and shipping. Tensions between Catholics and Protestants penetrated all aspect of life. The two PMs (Brookeborough and O'Neill) during this period had varying success in dealing with these problems faced. In 1945 the British began to instate the new Welfare State in NI as well as Britain. This concept of caring for citizens from the 'cradle to the grave' would have huge economic and social impact. Under the system free education, healthcare and social welfare was provided which significantly improved the lives of Catholics in particular who suffered discrimination at the hands of the Unionist government. The provisions of the welfare state in many cases benefitted Protestants and this lead to increased tension between catholics and protestants and resulted in further social problems.
P1. general paragraph on the welfare state
P2. health NHS, TB, the mater
P3. housing
P4. education.
P5. Social welfare.
P6. Economy under Brookeborough (pg333 and 334 and 336)
P7. Economy under O'Neill 1(pg337 and 338)
P8. Economy under O'Neill 2(pg337 and 338)
P9 Catholic grievances and civil rights marches lead to violence
Conclusion: Overall I think both governments had varying success in dealing with social and economic problems in this period and that a huge number of changes were brought into the country. While Brookebourough oversaw positive social changes in NI this was little to do with his own successes as this was the British Labor Party's idea and they took care of the bill. Both PMs failed to integrate the Catholic minority and many of their actions raised tensions. The Welfare state helped somewhat to appease the Catholic nationalists. I think that O'Neill's economic planning was a huge change as it greatly helped the economy while also failing to address the segregation which caused problems in everyday life and would eventually lead to enormous social unrest and much violence.
sample essay: (copy and paste into searchbar)
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1wgocgZ456xXJvEPxflKl9YEkLfK6gw2O/view
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1J5fY2-xdkTpjQRUfbM8_UF0EkVjPikkP/view
Past exam questions:
2020
During the period 1949-1969, how effectively did Northern Irish governments respond to the social and economic problems they faced?
2017
What were the main social and economic problems facing Northern Ireland, 1949‐1969, and how effectively were they tackled?
2016
During the period 1949-1969, how successful was the government of Northern Ireland in responding to problems posed by the economy and/or community relations?
2015
Would you agree that there was considerable social and economic change in Northern Ireland, 1949-1969, but that nothing changed politically?
2014
What were the main social and economic changes that took place in Northern Ireland, 1949-1993?
2008
How successful was the government of Northern Ireland in responding to social and economic problems, 1949-1969?
Monday 1 February 2021
What were the Main Challenges facing France?
See video lessons on teams.
What were the Main Challenges facing France?
Essay plan: What were the Main Challenges facing France, 1920-1945?
Intro: France faced many challenges during the inter-war years. After the first World War France suffered greatly. 1.3 million men were killed and 3 million were wounded. Even though the French were on the winning side of the war large areas of Northern France were destroyed - factories, towns, mines and farming land. The French now had to face the challenge of reconstruction - estimated at a cost of over 100 million francs. During the War inflation rose by over 400% and France owed a great deal of money. Over the next twenty years France would face major economic, political and foreign policy challenges and, despite some successes, for the most part the huge number of French governments in that time were unable to addressing these issues. 5
P1:Issues:
• industrial unrest
• the challenge of reconstruction in the war-torn areas.
• lack of manpower.
• cost of reconstruction.
Government: the Bloc National Government.
Solutions:
• Put down general strike of May 1920 ruthlessly (page 263).
• Two million immigrant workers came from Italy, Spain, Belgium and Poland, By 1926 roads, factories and houses were repaired and agricultural land was made productive again
• paid for out of German reparations
(can be split into 2 paragraphs if essay is only up to 1939/40)
P2: Foreign Policy: In charge: Clemenceau. Punishing Germany with Treaty and isolating Germany. (page 270, key points from French Security and the peace treaties. Protecting France and Isolating Germany paragraphs)
P3: foreign policy challenge attempting to enforce all of the terms of the treaty of Versailles especially the reparations. Occupation of the Ruhr (page 270-271)
In charge: Poincare
Impact:
• led to relations with Britain and America declining.
• showed France was not strong enough to enforce the treaty
• had cost the French money to send in troops. This led to an increase in taxation and a decline in the value of the Franc
P4: ISSUES: financial crisis and political instability
In charge: the Cartel des Gauches, 1926 the government of National Union took over, headed by Raymond Poincare
Actions:
• continued to borrow to pay for reconstruction and so the debt got larger and the value of the franc declined.
• Over the next year six more Cartel des Gauches governments failed to address the financial crisis (political instability - page 262 and 264)
• Poincare increased taxation for everybody
Result: balanced the budget (saviour of the franc)
P5: Foreign Policy. Aristide Briand. Aim: Improved relations with Germany. Actions: Locarno Pact followed by the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928.
But French still felt insecure so built the Maginot line
Led into next paragraph: by this time France was now faced with the effects of the Great Depression and German reparations had been cancelled (another failed French policy) (page 264)
P6: Wall street crash: explain French economy protected by high tariffs, few US loans and Bank reserves but hit in 1931 and lasted longer than most places. French exports declined and huge balance of payments deficit.
Gov actions:
• Governments cut the salaries of civil servants and the pensions of ex-soldiers
• introduced more protectionism
• took ownership or part ownership of companies such as Air France.
Result: resulted in many changes of Government and criticism of the Third Republic.
Led into next paragraph: In 1932 the Radicals, led by Herriot formed the government. They were unable to deal with the economic and financial crisis but now faced the threat French security faced from the rise of Hitler (page 265 and top of 266)
P7: Challenge: the right wing leagues. And riots against corruption due to the Stavisky affair.
(pages 266-268)
Gov actions: PM Chautemps attempted cover-up, refused to hold enquiry. Daladier new PM resigned due to riots. Left counter strike. Not a coup but reflect dissatisfaction with government.
P8: In power: the popular front. 1936 PM Leon Blum
Challenge: sit-ins. Industrial action. workers expect left coalition to give them the factories.
Gov action: Matignon agreement. Workers gain and employers happy no revolution but gov borrow money to implement some of the initiatives, devalue franc and new delay them. (page 168-169)
P9: Foreign policy 1930s. Still insecure. returned to old, isolate Germany policy after Hitler come’s to power. 1934 Four Power Pact, In 1935 Pierre Laval signed the Roma Agreements, Stresa Front in 1935. Policy and stresa front collapse with Italy invade Abyssinia. Failures: Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, Munich conference and declaration of war in 1939. Explain why these were failures ( pages 272-273)
P10: Challenge of the war.
In gov: Paul Reynaud. Divisions in France, Military failure. Reynaud wants to keep fighting, resigns, Petain takes over. Armistice and occupation. (page 274-275)
P11: Vichy France. Collaborators (Petain and Laval). And resistance. De Gaulle and free France. Challenge of dealing with collaborators, De Gaulle ensures systematic punishment and Government control. (pages 275-278)
Conclusion:
Between 1920 and 1945 one of the major challenges France faced was the political instability. This prevented many improvements and reforms in French society which would have better prepared the country for the second World War. It also remained economically backward with small scale production and with agriculture staying inefficient leading to social unrest. (mention foreign policy). by 1939 all of the main challenges facing French society during the inter-war years still remained. 4
sample essay:
Exam Questions
2018
What problems faced France in the years 1920‐1945, and to what extent were these problems overcome?
2014
Monday 25 January 2021
Coleraine Controversy
See teams for video "lesson"
Essay Plan:
Coleraine Controversy essay plan
Intro: Queen’s University on University. Catholics and Protestants mix freely. The number of Catholic students was on the rise and by the early 60’s was a quarter of all students. Magee college, small, in Derry. You could only do the first 2 years of a degree before finishing the final year at Queen’s or Trinity. As a result of the welfare state and the growing numbers attending secondary schools, esp grammar schools their was a perceived need to provide more third level places to meet demand. The Government had to choose between expanding Queen’s or Magee or establishing a completely new university in the province. The decision to found a new university was to lead to a bitter public controversy during 1965.
P1 The Lockwood Committee
In 1963 the Robbins Report on Higher Education in GB Recommended a huge expansion in the number of places in third-level education, especially in the area of science and technology. The expert authors believed that future economic prosperity depended on a better educated workforce. They also believed that clever working-class students should receive more encouragement to go on to third-level education. The same was proposed in the republic as witnessed by the highly influential report entitled Investment in Education, which was published in 1965. Against this backdrop the NI Government set up its own inquiry on third-level education. In November 1963 a committee was appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir John Lockwood, the Master of Birkbeck College in London. The 8 member committee included education experts from the north and GB. However, not a single representative from the Catholic and nationalist community in NI was included. From the outset it was clear that the location of the new university would be of great interest to the general public. There towns in particular were considered to be leading contenders: Derry, Armagh and Coleraine.
P2. Derry city council proposals (page 370 of 3rd edition)
As the second largest city in NI, with a population of 54,000, Derry appeared to be in a strong position. Even before the Lockwood Committee was appointed, the city council set out its findings.
P3 The Lockwood committee recommendations stress the controversial nature of their decision, (Coleraine best but asked to resubmit their proposal, accommodation in nearby towns V the city of Derry, to shut Magee) (page 371 of the 3rd edition)
P4. Reaction of the people of Derry and the University for Derry campaign. controversial that decision that goes against O'Neills talk of uniting the two communities was taken and unusual co-operation between Nationalists and Unionists of Derry/Londonderry. (page 372 of the 3rd edition) (quote from B. White Document 2 to support this paragraph)
P5. Confronting O'Neill (page 372 of 3rd edition)
P6. Motorcade to Stormont Controversial element is numbers against it and co-operation between unionists and nationalists Eddie McAteer and Mayor Anderson travelled together. (page 373 of 3rd edition)
P7. Debate in Stormont. Controversial as 1. Government impose whip and 2. all other parties (list them all out) and some unionists voted against it (page 373 of third edition)
P8. Nameless faceless men (continuing controversy (page 373/374 of third edition)
P9. Contrasting viewpoints nationalist and unionist (page 374 of 3rd edition)
P10. Missed opportunity (page 375/376 of third edition)
Conclusion: redress question, model on samples but expand on them, recap all controversial elements.
Notes:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1YERzDF8ToGSHy0X6EXs0AFCYYpvtRIel/view
https://www.dropbox.com/s/zq07cljsar8os7y/handout-the-coleraine-controversy1.doc?dl=0
Sample Essays:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/wtb0rq5ps5r276o/coleraine%20sample%20essay.pdf?dl=0
Exam questions
2008
Why was the choice of Coleraine as the site for Northern Ireland’s second university controversial?
2009
To what extent were the activities of the Apprentice Boys of Derry and/or the choice of Coleraine as the site of Northern Ireland’s second university divisive?
2012
What was the significance of the Coleraine University controversy and/or the activities of the Apprentice Boys of Derry?
2016
Why did controversy arise from the activities of the Apprentice Boys of Derry or the siting of a new university at Coleraine?
2019
2. What was the Coleraine University controversy and in what ways did it contribute to tensions in Northern Ireland?
Thursday 14 January 2021
Welfare State
See teams for video "lesson" (I'll try and do better in the next one)
Essay Plan:
Welfare state essay plan
Intro: Beveridge Report. Labour PM Clement Atlee promising to look after the people from “cradle to grave”. Welfare state, This involved the provision of better healthcare, education and housing for all. It would have a profound impact on the people of Northern Ireland for decades to come.
P1. Explain welfare state. Unionist opposition. Feared improve Catholics lot. Discrimination. Divided society. “Protestant state for protestant people” James Craig. Brookeborough “Protestant jobs for Protestant lads and lassies”
P2. Financial deal, pg362 of (3rd edition book)
P3 Health system, what it was like, changes
P4. TB
P5. Mater Hospital
P6. Social welfare (page 362/363)
P7. Housing (could be 2 paragraphs)
P8. Education. 11 plus, grants, 2nd level, numbers double (page 363)
P9. Opposition, unequal grants, tension (page 363)
P10. University numbers add 2 sentences on Coleraine at later date)
Conclusion.
Notes:
Sample Essays:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/robvc4w977zfzu0/welfare%20state.docx?dl=0
Exam questions
2006
1. During the period, 1949 – 1969, what was the impact of the welfare state on one or more of the following: education; health; housing? (100)
2007
1. What impact had the introduction of the welfare state to Northern Ireland on one or more of the following: education; health; housing? (100)
2013
1. How was Northern Ireland affected by developments in one or more of the following: education; health; housing? (100)
2015
1. Would you agree that there was considerable social and economic change in Northern Ireland, 1949-1969, but that nothing changed politically? (100)
2017
1. What were the main social and economic problems facing Northern Ireland, 1949‐1969, and how effectively were they tackled? (100)
2018
1. During the period 1949‐1969, what was the significance of developments in education, health and housing in Northern Ireland?
Sunday 10 January 2021
Moon essays/notes
Above are all previously asked exam questions on the Moon Landings. As you can see, with the exception of the how aspect of question 1, they are all pretty similar and thus if you have done the question with did before Christmas (what was the national and international significance of the Moon Landings?) then you should be well set but there isn't anything to prevent them changing the question and asking something new like why they did it?
To ensure you are completely prepared for all possible twists to the question I want you to do the following:
1. Develop and write 2 paragraphs on Why did the US begin its preparations for a manned landing on the Moon? Use some of the below points and read through the sources below and add information and quotes from them to your paragraphs.
l Intense
rivalry between USA and USSR
l A
contest of prestige, propaganda potential
l Chance to prove superiority of political and economic system by producing the best technology
In the context of the Cold War, the launch of Sputnik into space by the Soviet Union in 1957 made Americans fear that the Russians were overtaking them technologically, and this fear was increased when Russian cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, became the first man to orbit the Earth on the 12 April 1961.
The new President, John F. Kennedy, believed it would take a dramatic achievement such as a manned Moon landing to assert America’s pre-eminence as the world’s major power. He announced his resolution that the US would land a man on the Moon by the end of the decade on 25 May, 1961.
USA, humiliated and shocked - America’s first satellite, the Vanguard, exploded on the launch pad. Newspapers call it “Flopnik” and “Kaputnik”.
Fears over the “missile gap” - Americans had thought that they had the lead in rocket technology
Security Implications: These rockets could be used to hit America. Fear of spying or attack from space.
1961: Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man in space.
The Soviet achievements were also scientific victories for their way of organising an economy and running society - enormous propaganda value.
Sources on Why:
S1. government document “Reaction to the Soviet satellite: a preliminary evaluation” 17 October 1957.
One week after the USSR announced that it had launched an earth satellite, a number of broad major effects on world public opinion appeared clear: 1. Soviet claims of scientific and technological superiority over the West and especially the US have won greatly widened acceptance. 2. Public opinion in friendly countries shows decided concern over the possibility that the balance of military power has shifted or may soon shift in favour of the USSR. 3. The general credibility of Soviet propaganda has been greatly enhanced. 4. American prestige is viewed as having suffered a severe blow, and the American reaction, so sharply marked by concern, discomfiture and intense interest, has itself increased the disquiet of friendly countries and increased the impact of the satellite.
S2: The Irish Times 3 March 1958: A man will definitely be put into outer space within the next ten years, said Dr Wernher von Braun, American’s leading rocket scientist in the interview last night on British television.
S3: The Irish Times 13 April 1961. The great space race between Russia and the US, on which thousands of millions of roubes and dollars have been spent, ended yesterday with the news that Russia ha successfully launched the recovered a man from space, following a 108 minute orbit of the earth. The Soviet Union went wild with joy over the epoch-making voyage of the “cosmonaut”, 27 year old Yuri Gagarin, described by Moscow Radio as “the Colombus of interplanetary space”.
S4: The Irish Times 26 May 1961: President Kennedy went before a joint session of Congress yesterday to deliver what he called “a special message on urgent national needs”. He called for greatly increased expenditure on the US space programme, on arms, foreign aid, and a renewed attack on unemployment. America, he said, should commit itself to landing a man on the Moon by 1970 and returning him safely to earth. This project alone would cost an extra £189,000,000 this year and from £2,500,000,000 (2.5 Billion) to £3,200,000,000 over the next 5 years. In a very real sense it will not be one man going to the moon: it will be the entire nation,” Mr. Kennedy said, “for all of us must work to put him there.”
SS1: News of Sputnik and subsequent Soviet conquests of space jarred the American people. What might the Russian actually do with the capability to send payloads into orbit? Would future rockets carry warheads? Could the Russians establish military outposts on the moon - or even deeper in space? The implications were depressing. The US needed to overtake and surpass the Russians; second place in this conquest could have dire consequences. On May 25, 1961, President Kennedy made a special address to a joint session of congress in which he discussed the new “space race” within the context of Cold War rivalry with the Soviet Union and other communist nations. “Now it is time to take longer strides - time for a great new American enterprise - time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement which in many ways may hold the key to our future on earth.”……He then proposed a shockingly improbable goal, one more ambitious than any before it. “I believe we should go to the moon,” he stated simply. (Christopher B. Stain. The Long Sixties, 2017)
2. Develop and write 4 paragraphs on What actions did the US take, and what resources did it commit, in making plans for a Moon landing during the 1960s? (Another way of asking how did the US achieve a successful Moon Landing in 1969?) Use some of the below points to develop you paragraphs and read through the sources below and add information and quotes from them to your paragraphs.
Suggested Paragraphs:
- The development of rocket technology, Von Braun.
- financial investment. in education, NASA.
- Gemini, Mercury and Apollo mission develop and further develop space capabilities needed to land on the Moon e.g. Docking
- technological developments
Points to include:
Rocket development had military implications for the “arms race” - missiles that sent men to space could send nukes to the other side
After WWII both USA and USSR worked to build ICBMs (Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles) that could travel thousands of miles to deliver nuclear warheads
- Project Gemini (1962-1966) was set up to investigate the operational and practical aspects of working and living in outer space.
- The Apollo Program (1961-1972) focused on the challenge of landing a man on the Moon, including the development of space ships and computerised systems that could carry out the series of complex manoeuvres that would be required.
- The Apollo Program alone cost between $25 billion and £35 billion dollars. Each trip to the Moon cost around half a billion dollars.
- The preparations for a Moon landing involved the biggest scientific and technological undertaking in history. It has been estimated that three hundred thousand engineers and other technical staff were involved and many entirely new inventions were developed to meet the challenges of space travel. Computer programmer Margaret Hamilton and other women played important roles.
NASA set up and the National Defence Education Act 1958 passed - $900m for teachers salaries, science construction and college scholarships.
1961. JFK commits the US to getting a man on the moon by 1969.
Gemini Missions: step-by-step build the skills and technology needed to get a man on the moon - two-person crews- craft would serve as a model for the larger Apollo ships - docking - 1962 John Glenn orbits the Earth
Huge public support: Kennedy’s death - beat the soviets - romance of space (tv).
President Johnson was committed to the Apollo project: 1961-1964 NASA’s budget increased by 500%.
Sergei Korolev, the chief Soviet rocket scientist, died in 1966 - allowed American technology to overtake
Developed the Saturn V rocket to break the atmosphere and propel the Apollo craft to the Moon.
1968: Apollo 8 orbited the moon; May 1969: Apollo 10 dress rehearsed the lunar landing
Impact: Astronauts became celebrities - ideal American heroes, featured on tv, newspapers, magazines
Radio and TV broadcasts from the Apollo spacecraft - contrast to the secrecy of the Soviets
Apollo 11 launched on July 16 th 1969
Made three televised broadcasts from the ship
July 20 th , Armstrong and Aldrin landed the Eagle on the Sea of Tranquility
A camera in the Eagle provide live coverage
Over 500 million people watched on TV< making it the most watched event in television history up to that point.
Returned to Earth on the 24 th of July
Technology developments:
NASA had to over come many technological problems to get men on the Moon and back.
They developed special photography to select a suitable landing site, similar to CAT and MRI
scanning used in hospitals today.
They developed freeze-dried food to feed astronauts on an extended voyage to the Moon.
Cool suits were used to keep astronauts at a comfortable temperature while they were on the
Moon.
They also developed boots for better shock absorption and stability on the Moon’s surface.
Cordless power tools were developed to help gather Moon rock.
They also developed a heart conditioner to maintain the heart on long space voyages, insulation
barriers of aluminium foil to protect instruments and astronauts from radiation and water
purification technology to maintain a fresh water supply.
Without these advances in technology, the US would not have been able to put men on the
Moon and return them safely.
Sources on How:
SS2: Between 1962 and 1966, Project Gemini was tasked with developing “operational capacity in space” and investigating “the problems of working and living in space” as NASA continued to assemble the necessary talent and materials to chase a dream. Under the longer-running Apollo Program (1961-1972) - with its thirty-three flights, eleven of which were manned - NASA focused on the task of actually landing on the moon via lunar rendezvous and coupling, in which a smaller lander leaves the main spacecraft in orbit, descends to the moon’s surface, then returns to lunar orbit to re-dock with the bigger craft to return to Earth. The work involved was almost unimaginable, constituting the largest scientific and technological undertaking in history. Three hundred thousand engineers and technical staff persons, working for 20,000 contractors, made entirely new inventions - from cordless tools to freeze-dried foods - to accomplish the task. The entire science of transistors, integrated circuits, and computer microchips had to be invented and debugged before rocket experts could plan launches and recovery. Working feverishly, NASA scientists and engineers boldly went where none had gone before - and spent tens of billions of dollars in the process. (Chris B. Strain, 2017)
S5: The Irish Times 17 June 1963: Only last week, the US announced the end of Project Mercury, under which four men went into orbit. On paper, its achievements have been less impressive than the Soviet Union’s. Project Gemini, which will put two men into space, has already been started on. The first tests are announced for the end of the year, and the first manned flight in the programme is expected to take place at the end of 1964 leading to further flights of up to two weeks’ duration.
S6: The Irish Times 9 April 1964: The US successfully put into orbit this morning an unmanned Gemini space capsule, designed eventually to carry two men into space for periods as long as a fortnight. The second generation of manned space programmes thus got off to a perfect start and the Titan rocket, which as developed as an intercontinental ballistic missile, proved its versatility. The 29 astronauts, from whom the Gemini’s first passengers will be chosen later this year, watched the 90 feet Titan roar away after a perfect countdown, its first stage engine generating 430,000 lb. Of thrust. Their interest, like that of the many other space scientists gathered at Cape Kennedy, Florida, was focused primarily on the first five minutes and 35 seconds of flight - the time it took for the Titan to exhaust the fuel in its two stages and inject the capsule into orbit - and a variety of measurements were made to ascertain the temperature, pressure and noise to which future astronauts will be subjected.
S7: The Irish Times 16 December 1965: ASTRONAUTS HOLD SPACE RENDEZVOUS SIX-FOOT GAP SEPARATES SPACECRAFT. The two astronauts, Walter Schirra and Thomas Strafford, made a successful take-off from Cape Kennedy yesterday abroad Gemini 6 and approached to within six feet of Gemini 7, which has been orbiting the earth for 12 days. The close approach was made 185 miles above the Mariana Islands, north of Guam, while the two vehicles were orbiting at more than 17,000 miles an hour. US scientists consider that the operation was an important step towards the time when large laboratories will orbit the earth and serve as bases for space research.
S8: The Irish Times 3 March 1966: An important first step towards putting a man on the moon was taken at Cape Kennedy, Florida, on Saturday. The new American Saturn 1-B rocket dispatched an unmanned Apollo spacecraft on a 39-minute sub-orbital flight to a landing 5,300 miles away in the South Atlantic. The launching followed more than four years of preparation and preceded by less than four years the scheduled first lunar landing by American astronauts. The preparations began in May 1961 when defence and space officials gathered in the Pentagon office of the US Defence Secretary, Mr Robert McNamara, to consider a project that would challenge the US and excite all mankind.
Apollo 1 crew: Gus Grisson, Ed White and Roger Chaffee, died in a fatal accident in a pre-launch test of the spacecraft, 27 January 1967.
S9: The Irish Times 26 August 1967: Article entitled: “Is there still a moon race?” by Kenneth W. Gartland, then vice-president of the British Interplanetary Society and Editor of Space Flight.
When the space race claimed its first victims earlier this year, America and Russia were on the brink of exciting new ventures. At Cape Kennedy astronauts were preparing to test their Apollo spacecraft in Earth-orbit. Soviet cosmonauts were in the last stages of training for similar test-flights in the Soyuz (Soviet) spacecraft. The first tragedy came in America when a fire swept the Apollo capsule during the launch pad rehearsal on January 27th, kiing Virgil Grisson, Edward White - experienced astronauts - and Roger Chaffee. The disaster immediately set back America’s moon programme a year. Modifications required to make the spacecraft “safe” are extensive. They include changing to less flammable materials in the cabin, provision of a quick-release hatch, new fire-resistant spacesuits and modifications to launch facilities at Cape Kennedy. When changes in spacecraft manufacture and delivery schedules are taken into account. The cost is estimated at around $75 million.
Note: The victim of the Russian tragedy mentioned above was Colonel Vladimir Komarov, who plunged to his death on 24th April whilst returning to Earth in there-entry capsule of Soyuz 1. According to the Soviet authorities, the tragic accident was due to entanglement of the shroud lines of the landing parachute.
S10: The Irish Times 22 October 1968: Article entitled “How Americans plan to land on the moon” by Arnold Whittaker and Thomas Kelly, leading engineers on the team that developed the lunar module.
Altogether about 2,000 spacecraft hours and some 5,000 astronaut hours are scheduled to be logged before America’s lunar mission takes place. We’re hoping this comes off in 1969 but are prepared to live with unforeseen delays that will push us into 1970. Since 1962, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) has followed the concept that the lunar orbit rendezvous mode is the best way of getting a team of men on the moon and our LM (Lunar Module) is a result of this decision. It is really the world’s first true spacecraft, designed to operate solely as a ferry between a spacecraft orbiting the moon and the moon surface. Once it brings the astronauts back up into space, it will be left like a piece of junk while its passengers return to the earth. It is probably the ugliest-looking thing American engineering has ever built - but we’re very proud of it. The basic outward design of the LM hasn’t changed appreciably since 1964. It’s basically two units in one - a descent stage with landing gear to drop the men on the moon and an ascent stage to get them off again. Its weight at earth launch is 32,000 pounds, approximately three quarters of which is fuel.
S11: The Irish Times, 14 March 1969: Less than six hours after the perfect return of Apollo-9 and its three astronauts, NASA announced in Houston Texas, that Apollo 11 would take off for the moon on July 15th and two men would make a lunar landing on July 19th. General Samuel Phillips, manager of the Apollo programme, said that, in May, Apollo-10 would orbit the moon with the lunar module descending to within nine miles of the moon’s surface. Yesterday the capsule carrying the Apollo-9 astronauts,
Manned Apollo missions
Mission | Date(s) | Outcome |
Apollo 1 | 1967, 27 January | Pre-launch test leads to accidental death of 3 astronauts |
Apollo 7 | 1968, 11 October | First Apollo mission to carry a crew into space |
Apollo 8 | 1968, 21 December | First space flight to orbit the Moon |
Apollo 9 | 1969, 3 March | First Manned flight test of lunar module |
Apollo 10 | 1969, 8 May | ‘Dress rehearsal’ for lunar landing |
Apollo 11 | 1969, 20 July | First Moon landing |
Finally write a detailed paragraph plan for What was the impact of the Moon landing, 1969?
Points:
- Up to a quarter of the world’s population watched the event on television.
- For Americans, there was relief and deep satisfaction that the US had got to the Moon before the Soviet Union.
- The event was seen as a significant marker in humankind’s technological progress and ability to explore space - by Americans and by many people worldwide.
- Some of the reaction at the time was ‘over the top’ - and the event did not lead on to further achievements in space in the way that some people had anticipated.
- Some Americans criticised the vast sums of spent on sending men to the Moon while poverty and social inequalities were neglected.
- The event helped to increase interest in the ecology movement, as images of the Earth from outer space increased people’s environmental consciousness of Earth’s finite resources and cosmic vulnerability.
Sources re impact:
S13: The Irish Times 21 July 1969: At 20 seconds after 3.56 A.M. (Irish time) today, the first man set foot on the Moon. He was Neil Armstrong, commander of the Apollo-11 mission who, almost seven hours earlier at 9.17 and 45 seconds - had piloted the lunar landing module, Eagle, to an almost perfect landing in the Sea of Tranquility. At 4.14 he was joined on the surface of the Moon by his companion in the module, Edwin Aldrin. Armstrong’s first words on the moon were: “That’s one small step for man. One giant leap for mankind.” The hatch of the lunar module opened at 3.40. But before placing his foot on the top rung of the descent ladder, Armstrong stood on the threshold and communicated his first impressions of lunar gravity and what he could see back to Earth. A short way down the ladder, he said: “Okay, I’m going to pull it down.” He referred to the instrument pack containing the television camera. At the bottom, Armstrong said his foot sank into the surface very, very slightly, “but I can see my footprint.” “There seems to be no difficulty in moving around,” he said, as he moved away from Eagle’s leg. “It’s a very soft surface, but here and there where I poke with the sample collector I run into a very hard surface,” even though “it appeared to be the same material.” The Moon “has a harsh beauty all its own,” he reported. “It looks like the desert of the US, but it is very beautiful.” In Houston, Space Centre surgeons said that “data is good and Moon crew doing well,” as Armstrong took his historic steps and Aldrin took pictures.
S14: Ground Control called the two into camera range for a conversation with President Nixon, who said: “This must be the most historic telephone call ever made.” “Because of what you have done,” Mr. Nixon told them, “the heavens have become part of the Earth. For the first time in the history of man, all the people on this Earth are truly one.” Armstrong replied with thanks saying that it was “a great honour and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the US but men of peace of all nations.”
Plague: HERE MEN FROM THE PLANET EARTH FIRST SET FOOT UPON THE MOON JULY 1969, A.D. WE CAME IN PEACE FOR ALL MANKIND.
S15: Throughout my childhood in the 1950s, Americans regarded science and medicine with a respect bordering on reverence. American technology and science were given the lion’s share of the credit for Allied victory in the Second World War, and few ordinary Americans doubted either the wisdom or the morality of the atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki that finally brought an end to the fighting in the Pacific. As far as the public was concerned, American preeminence in science was a given until the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, but fear that the Russians might win the space race actually raised the prestige of science by providing a rationale for large increases in government spending on basic scientific research and science education. The moon landing in 1969 would probably never have happened without the blow to America’s sense of superiority twelve years earlier. Neil Armstrong’s walk on the moon, however, represented more than a national and nationalistic achievement: it was a unique moment in which not only technological prowess but the imaginative possibilities of science and exploration were illuminated for Americans and millions of others around the globe.
Finally read through these important notes:
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